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Washington State Institute for Public Policy
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keepin' it REAL

Public Health & Prevention: School-based
Benefit-cost methods last updated December 2023.  Literature review updated June 2014.
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Keepin' it REAL is a universal school-based substance use prevention program designed in multicultural settings for middle school students. The curriculum is taught by classroom teachers in 45-minute sessions once a week for ten weeks. Classroom sessions include group discussions, role playing, games, and five videos produced by youth, designed to teach students drug resistance skills. Our review of the program is limited to the curriculum as implemented by the original developers and does not reflect the alternative implementation model used by Drug Abuse Resistance Education (D.A.R.E.) America.
 
ALL
BENEFIT-COST
META-ANALYSIS
CITATIONS
For an overview of WSIPP's Benefit-Cost Model, please see this guide. The estimates shown are present value, life cycle benefits and costs. All dollars are expressed in the base year chosen for this analysis (2022). The chance the benefits exceed the costs are derived from a Monte Carlo risk analysis. The details on this, as well as the economic discount rates and other relevant parameters are described in our Technical Documentation.
Benefit-Cost Summary Statistics Per Participant
Benefits to:
Taxpayers $235 Benefits minus costs $716
Participants $484 Benefit to cost ratio $13.37
Others $64 Chance the program will produce
Indirect ($10) benefits greater than the costs 62%
Total benefits $774
Net program cost ($58)
Benefits minus cost $716

Meta-analysis is a statistical method to combine the results from separate studies on a program, policy, or topic in order to estimate its effect on an outcome. WSIPP systematically evaluates all credible evaluations we can locate on each topic. The outcomes measured are the types of program impacts that were measured in the research literature (for example, crime or educational attainment). Treatment N represents the total number of individuals or units in the treatment group across the included studies.

An effect size (ES) is a standard metric that summarizes the degree to which a program or policy affects a measured outcome. If the effect size is positive, the outcome increases. If the effect size is negative, the outcome decreases. See Estimating Program Effects Using Effect Sizes for additional information.

Adjusted effect sizes are used to calculate the benefits from our benefit cost model. WSIPP may adjust effect sizes based on methodological characteristics of the study. For example, we may adjust effect sizes when a study has a weak research design or when the program developer is involved in the research. The magnitude of these adjustments varies depending on the topic area.

WSIPP may also adjust the second ES measurement. Research shows the magnitude of some effect sizes decrease over time. For those effect sizes, we estimate outcome-based adjustments which we apply between the first time ES is estimated and the second time ES is estimated. We also report the unadjusted effect size to show the effect sizes before any adjustments have been made. More details about these adjustments can be found in our Technical Documentation.

Meta-Analysis of Program Effects
Outcomes measured Treatment age No. of effect sizes Treatment N Adjusted effect sizes(ES) and standard errors(SE) used in the benefit - cost analysis Unadjusted effect size (random effects model)
First time ES is estimated Second time ES is estimated
ES SE Age ES SE Age ES p-value
Smoking before end of middle school
Any smoking of tobacco by the end of middle school, typically by age 13.
 13 2 2214 -0.017 0.124 15 -0.017 0.124 15 -0.053 0.671
Cannabis use before end of middle school
Any use of cannabis by the end of middle school, typically by age 13.
13 1 2051 -0.046 0.127 15 -0.046 0.127 15 -0.141 0.269
Alcohol use before end of middle school
Any use of alcohol by the end of middle school, typically by age 13.
13 2 2209 -0.046 0.124 15 -0.046 0.124 15 -0.140 0.258
1In addition to the outcomes measured in the meta-analysis table, WSIPP measures benefits and costs estimated from other outcomes associated with those reported in the evaluation literature. For example, empirical research demonstrates that high school graduation leads to reduced crime. These associated measures provide a more complete picture of the detailed costs and benefits of the program.

2“Others” includes benefits to people other than taxpayers and participants. Depending on the program, it could include reductions in crime victimization, the economic benefits from a more educated workforce, and the benefits from employer-paid health insurance.

3“Indirect benefits” includes estimates of the net changes in the value of a statistical life and net changes in the deadweight costs of taxation.
Detailed Monetary Benefit Estimates Per Participant
Affected outcome: Resulting benefits:1 Benefits accrue to:
Taxpayers Participants Others2 Indirect3 Total
Smoking before end of middle school Health care associated with smoking $9 $2 $9 $4 $24
Cannabis use before end of middle school Criminal justice system $22 $0 $54 $11 $87
Alcohol use before end of middle school Labor market earnings associated with alcohol abuse or dependence $204 $481 $0 $0 $685
Property loss associated with alcohol abuse or dependence $0 $1 $1 $0 $2
Mortality associated with alcohol $0 $1 $0 $4 $5
Program cost Adjustment for deadweight cost of program $0 $0 $0 ($29) ($29)
Totals $235 $484 $64 ($10) $774
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Detailed Annual Cost Estimates Per Participant
Annual cost Year dollars Summary
Program costs $48 2014 Present value of net program costs (in 2022 dollars) ($58)
Comparison costs $0 2014 Cost range (+ or -) 10%
The per-student cost estimate assumes teachers deliver 7.5 hours of instruction over ten sessions to classes of approximately 26 students. The estimate also includes training and implementation material costs obtained from the program’s website (http://www.kir.psu.edu/curriculum/order.shtml) and personal communication with developer.
The figures shown are estimates of the costs to implement programs in Washington. The comparison group costs reflect either no treatment or treatment as usual, depending on how effect sizes were calculated in the meta-analysis. The cost range reported above reflects potential variation or uncertainty in the cost estimate; more detail can be found in our Technical Documentation.
Benefits Minus Costs
Benefits by Perspective
Taxpayer Benefits by Source of Value
Benefits Minus Costs Over Time (Cumulative Discounted Dollars)
The graph above illustrates the estimated cumulative net benefits per-participant for the first fifty years beyond the initial investment in the program. We present these cash flows in discounted dollars. If the dollars are negative (bars below $0 line), the cumulative benefits do not outweigh the cost of the program up to that point in time. The program breaks even when the dollars reach $0. At this point, the total benefits to participants, taxpayers, and others, are equal to the cost of the program. If the dollars are above $0, the benefits of the program exceed the initial investment.

Citations Used in the Meta-Analysis

Hecht, M.L., Marsiglia, F.F., Elek, E., Wagstaff, D.A., Kulis, S., Dustman, P., & Miller-Day, M. (2003). Culturally grounded substance use prevention: an evaluation of the keepin' it R.E.A.L. curriculum. Prevention Science, 4(4), 233-48.

Marsiglia, F.F., Booth, J. M., Ayers, S.L., Nuntilde;o-Gutierrez, B.L., Kulis, S., & Hoffman, S. (2013). Short-term effects on substance use of the keepin' it REAL pilot prevention program: Linguistically adapted for youth in Jalisco, Mexico. Prevention Science.