Positive Action is a school-wide social and character development program that aims to improve students’ behavior, character, and academics. It consists of classroom curricula, schoolwide climate changes led by the principal and a Positive Action coordinator, and family and community resources. For the classroom component, teachers deliver about 140 15-minute lessons per academic year in grades K-5 and 70 15-minute lessons in grades 6-8. Lessons are organized in six sequential units. Most studies in this analysis evaluated Positive Action implemented in grades K-5.

 

^{^}WSIPP’s benefit-cost model does not monetize this outcome.

Meta-analysis is a statistical method to combine the results from separate studies on a program, policy, or topic to estimate its effect on an outcome. WSIPP systematically evaluates all credible evaluations we can locate on each topic. The outcomes measured are the program impacts measured in the research literature (for example, impacts on crime or educational attainment). Treatment N represents the total number of individuals or units in the treatment group across the included studies.

An effect size (ES) is a standard metric that summarizes the degree to which a program or policy affects a measured outcome. If the effect size is positive, the outcome increases. If the effect size is negative, the outcome decreases. See Estimating Program Effects Using Effect Sizes for additional information on how we estimate effect sizes.

The effect size may be adjusted from the unadjusted effect size estimated in the meta-analysis. Historically, WSIPP adjusted effect sizes to some programs based on the methodological characteristics of the study. For programs reviewed in 2024 or later, we do not make additional adjustments, and we use the unadjusted effect size whenever we run a benefit-cost analysis.

Research shows the magnitude of effects may change over time. For those effect sizes, we estimate outcome-based adjustments, which we apply between the first time ES is estimated and the second time ES is estimated. More details about these adjustments can be found in our Technical Documentation.

Meta-Analysis of Program Effects
Outcomes measured	Treatment age	Primary or secondary participant	No. of effect sizes	Treatment N	Effect sizes (ES) and standard errors (SE) used in the benefit-cost analysis						Unadjusted effect size (random effects model)
					First time ES is estimated			Second time ES is estimated
					ES	SE	Age	ES	SE	Age	ES	p-value
K-12 grade repetition Repeating a grade. This is sometimes called "grade retention."	7	Primary	1	5754	-0.297	0.160	12	-0.297	0.160	12	-0.297	0.063
Suspensions/expulsions^ In-school suspensions, out-of-school suspensions, or expulsions from school	7	Primary	4	29275	-0.297	0.104	10	n/a	n/a	n/a	-0.297	0.004
Test scores Standardized, validated tests of academic achievement.	7	Primary	5	37558	0.274	0.089	11	0.198	0.098	17	0.274	0.002
Social and emotional development^ A broad range of skills relevant to self, emotion, and relationships. These skills are typically measured through validated assessments that measure self-awareness, social competence, and self-control.	7	Primary	1	416	0.044	0.192	8	n/a	n/a	n/a	0.044	0.819
Office discipline referrals^ Referrals of a student to an administrative office for disciplinary reasons.	7	Primary	4	31801	-0.450	0.198	10	n/a	n/a	n/a	-0.450	0.023
School attendance^ Number or percentage of school days present in a given enrollment period.	7	Primary	5	37558	0.150	0.077	10	n/a	n/a	n/a	0.150	0.052
Alcohol use before end of middle school Any use of alcohol by the end of middle school, typically by age 13.	7	Primary	2	1169	-0.423	0.072	11	-0.423	0.072	11	-0.423	0.001
Cannabis use before end of middle school Any use of cannabis by the end of middle school, typically by age 13.	7	Primary	1	193	-0.348	0.162	13	-0.348	0.162	13	-0.348	0.032
Smoking before end of middle school Any smoking of tobacco by the end of middle school, typically by age 13.	7	Primary	2	1169	-0.354	0.098	11	-0.354	0.098	11	-0.354	0.001
Illicit drug use before end of middle school Any use of illicit drugs by the end of middle school, typically by age 13. When possible, we exclude cannabis/marijuana use disorder from this outcome.	7	Primary	1	976	-0.771	0.212	11	-0.771	0.212	11	-0.771	0.001
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms Clinical diagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or symptoms measured on a validated scale.	7	Primary	1	416	-0.057	0.070	8	0.000	0.141	9	-0.057	0.415
Anxiety disorder Clinical diagnosis of an anxiety disorder (e.g., general anxiety, panic, social anxiety, obsessive compulsive disorder) or symptoms measured on a validated scale.	7	Primary	1	585	-0.193	0.059	13	-0.076	0.060	14	-0.193	0.001
Major depressive disorder Clinical diagnosis of major depression or symptoms measured on a validated scale.	7	Primary	1	585	-0.140	0.059	13	0.000	0.310	15	-0.140	0.017
Externalizing behavior symptoms Symptoms of externalizing behavior (e.g., aggressive, hostile, or disruptive behavior) measured on a validated scale.	7	Primary	3	6425	-0.315	0.169	12	-0.173	0.126	15	-0.315	0.063
Internalizing symptoms Symptoms of internalizing behavior (e.g., sadness, anxiety, or withdrawal) measured on a validated scale.	7	Primary	1	4864	0.024	0.020	12	0.024	0.020	14	0.024	0.227
Initiation of sexual activity^ Self-reported sexual intercourse.	7	Primary	1	976	-1.039	0.192	11	n/a	n/a	n/a	-1.039	0.001
Body mass index (BMI)^ A measure of relative weight for height, measured by dividing a person's weight in kilograms by their height in meters, squared.	7	Primary	1	193	-0.220	0.105	13	n/a	n/a	n/a	-0.220	0.037
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Bavarian, N., Lewis, K.M., Acock, A., DuBois, D.L., Zi, Y., Vuchinich, S., Silverthorn, N., Day, J., & Flay, B.R. (2016). Effects of a school-based social-emotional and character development program on health behaviors: A matched-pair, cluster-randomized controlled trial. Journal of Primary Prevention, 37(1) 87-105.

Bavarian, N., Lewis, K.M., DuBois, D.L., Acock, A., Vuchinich, S., Silverthorn, N., Snyder, F.J., Day, J., Ji, P., & Flay, B.R. (2013). Using social-emotional and character development to improve academic outcomes: A matched-pair, cluster-randomized controlled trial in low-income, urban schools. Journal of School Health, 83(11), 771-9.

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Lewis, K.M., Dubois, D.L., Silverthorn, N., Bavarian, N., Acock, A., Vuchinich, S., Day, J., Flay, B.R., & Ji, P. (2013). Effects of positive action on the emotional health of urban youth: A cluster-randomized trial. Journal of Adolescent Health, 53(6), 706-711.

Lewis, K.M., Schure, M.B., Bavarian, N., DuBois, D.L., Day, J., Ji, P., Silverthorn, N., Acock, A., Vuchinich, S., & Flay, B.R. (2013). Problem behavior and urban, low-income youth. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 44(6), 622-30.

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