Julia Cramer - July 2025

WSIPP receives funding from the legislature to conduct research on K–12 education topics. This report focuses on chronic absenteeism in Washington K–12 schools. A student is considered chronically absent when they miss 10% or more days in a school year. Chronic absenteeism is associated with poor academic and non-academic outcomes across all grades.

For this report, we interviewed staff working on attendance and reengagement efforts in eight out of nine Educational Service Districts (ESDs). We summarize their perspectives on why students are chronically absent, what schools are doing to improve attendance, and the challenges they face.

ESD staff reported that students miss school mostly because of illness or mental health issues. Often, students experience situations outside of their control that require them to stay home. Lack of belonging, falling behind in schoolwork, and changing schools are other common reasons.

We learned that schools are most commonly using data to inform attendance efforts, creating attendance teams with dedicated staff focused on attendance initiatives, using communication strategies to educate students and families about the importance of attendance, building relationships with students so they feel welcome at school, and sometimes implementing competitions and incentives to encourage better attendance.

Schools have limited staffing, sometimes prioritize other things besides attendance, struggle to collect and analyze data, and face shifting mindsets about attendance from students and families after the COVID-19 pandemic, all of which challenge their ability to reduce absenteeism.

This is the first report on chronic absenteeism. In June 2026, we will report on the evidence base for interventions on attendance on student outcomes.

Colin Gibson, Corey Whichard - July 2025

Although experimental research is ideal for testing causal relationships between variables, its use in correctional settings is rare for both practical and ethical reasons. This report explores opportunities for improving the quality of WSIPP’s outcome evaluations of prison programs offered by the Washington State Department of Corrections (DOC).

Our analysis finds that six current DOC programs show promise regarding the use of natural experiments to conduct outcome evaluations. However, programs present challenges regarding incomplete data collection, the lack of quality assurance systems, and the use of subjective criteria for determining program eligibility. Practices that could improve future research quality include tracking additional participant and facilitator data, implementing quality assurance systems, and conducting randomized controlled trials of prison programs. Some of these practices would require additional resources or would raise legal or ethical issues.

Travis Taniguchi, Alex Patel - June 2025

Under RCW 72.09.100, the legislature has vested the Department of Corrections (DOC) with the authority to establish a voluntary comprehensive work program. This legislation defines five types of work programs which includes free venture industries (Class I), tax reduction industries (Correctional Industries, Class II), institutional support industries (Class III), and community work industries (Class IV). The most comprehensive and diverse set of work opportunities are operated by Correctional Industries (CI) which offers a variety of goods and services such as institutional food service, furniture manufacturing, and production of textile goods. In addition to work opportunities, CI offers training, certification, and mentorship to people that participate in its programming. In this report, we describe the goods and services produced by CI; the comparability of CI goods relative to items available through traditional vendors; the amount and value of labor provided by people experiencing incarceration; the skill level of assignments available to people that are incarcerated; and the relationship between CI participation and post-incarceration employment.

In FY 2023, CI generated over $100 million in revenue from nearly 3 million labor hours from incarcerated people. The largest purchaser from CI was DOC, predominantly for food and clothing. Items manufactured by CI were generally priced comparably to similar products available through other vendors. The one exception was for prescription eyewear produced by the Optical Division; these were the lowest cost for nearly all items reviewed.

Across all DOC work programs, incarcerated people contributed over 9 million labor hours (equivalent to 4,300 full-time employees) to producing goods and services, maintaining DOC facilities, supporting community projects, and performing forestry fire service. Compensating incarcerated people at minimum wage would increase costs from $9.4 million per year to more than $150 million per year. People that had participated in CI were more likely to find employment after release, find employment sooner, work more hours, and earn more per hour. Due to data limitations, however, these results should be interpreted as descriptive and not causal.

Liqiang Liu, Paige Wanner, Micah McFeely - June 2025

The 2023 Washington State Legislature directed WSIPP to review all assessments and charges imposed on individuals incarcerated in Department of Corrections (DOC) facilities and their family members and the effect of assessments and charges on the financial status of incarcerated individuals. In this report, we quantified the financial costs of items and services incurred by incarcerated individuals during confinement, assessed their financial status, and explored how DOC collected and used the associated commissions and fees.

First, our review shows that while incarcerated individuals initially received certain items free of charge, they were required to purchase replacements for many of these items thereafter. In FY 2024, individuals spent nearly $37 million on additional items and services, with over 93% of the spending concentrated in five major categories: commissary items, phone calls, electronic media services, and food and personal property packages. Additionally, our price comparison analysis indicates that commissary items were priced relatively low.

Second, our analysis reveals that mandatory deductions amounted to roughly 23% of wages and 32% of funds received during FYs 2022-24. Recent policy changes have increased the number of exemptions to those mandatory deductions. Moreover, our assessment shows that the average individual incurred nearly $2,230 annually on additional items and services. Compensation from correctional work assignments could cover nearly 35% of the spending (on average), with the remainder typically paid by family and/or limited debt.

Lastly, our analysis indicates that DOC charged average gross profit margins ranging from 20% to 40% across these five major categories. Additionally, commissions and fees–primarily from phone calls, media services, and incarceration costs–were relatively small (less than 1%) compared to DOC’s budget and were allocated to improvement activities and CI operational expenses.

Benjamin MacCormack-Gelles, Amani Rashid - June 2025

Long-term support services (LTSS) include a range of resources to help people with chronic conditions maintain their quality of life. These services can be adapted to meet the specific needs of adults who have sustained a traumatic brain injury (TBI).

We conducted a review of Medicaid programs states use to provide LTSS. Programs that specifically target adults with brain injury are more likely to offer employment and behavioral support. Facility-based services are commonly provided in group home settings and may specify transitional or lifelong support goals. Many states integrate participant self-direction into community-based TBI services. Several states are carefully integrating adults with complex chronic conditions, such as TBI, into managed LTSS.

We used administrative data to estimate the incidence of TBI in Washington, demographics of adults with TBIs, and healthcare outcomes. Older adults are most vulnerable to TBIs, but younger adults represent a large proportion of total injuries. Medicaid-insured adults are hospitalized for TBI at a higher rate than privately insured adults. Privately insured adults account for a larger proportion of TBIs diagnosed in outpatient settings. Rates vary across counties but are not correlated with rurality at that scale.

Cory Briar, Alexandra Johnson - June 2025

The 2023 Washington State Legislature tasked WSIPP with investigating the cost of conservation district (CD) supervisor elections under current law and two alternative policies that would place these elections on the general ballot. WSIPP was also directed to evaluate the potential non-monetary impacts of these alternative policies. To conduct this study, we collected data from all 45 CDs in Washington to summarize election costs, funding, and turnout under current law. We surveyed CD supervisors and staff about the potential impacts of the alternative policies. This final report covers our analysis of CD supervisor elections under current law and the potential monetary and non-monetary impacts of two alternative policies specified in the legislative assignment.

Under current law, CDs vary widely in the cost of their elections. From 2020–2024, total election costs ranged from a low of $50 to nearly $422,000, with a median of $2,500. CDs fund their elections in a number of ways, including state funding, flat per-parcel fees charged at the county level, or the overhead portion of grants they receive to conduct conservation programming. Turnout in CD elections is very low, with only one CD having more than 1% of its eligible voters cast ballots between 2020 and 2024.

We find that both of the alternative election policies would lead to drastic increases in election costs for most CDs. The first policy, which places CD elections on the general ballot, would have resulted in a median election cost increase of 225% per biennium from 2020–2024. This would increase to a 651% increase if primaries were required. The second policy would additionally change elections such that supervisors run for one of five zones within a CD. This policy would have been less costly but would still have led to a median cost increase of 75% over current law (338% with primaries).

CD supervisors and staff communicated that they expected more non-monetary costs than benefits to result from the alternative policies. Many districts shared that the policies could lead to more turnout in elections and engagement with CDs, but some questioned whether this would lead to increased engagement with CDs. Most districts feared the policies would lead to increased politicization of CDs and fewer resources being devoted to conservation programming.

Cory Briar, Benjamin MacCormack-Gelles - June 2025

The 2022 Legislature directed WSIPP to conduct a study of the needs of farmworkers in Washington state. WSIPP was specifically tasked with interviewing or surveying farmworkers about their experiences in agricultural work in the state, reviewing the research literature on the efficacy of programs and policies to meet farmworker needs, and describing the collaboration between state and federal agencies in delivering services to farmworkers. A preliminary report was published in December of 2023.

This final report presents the results of a survey of 202 farmworkers in the state. Respondents were asked about workplace health and safety, experiences with hours and pay, use of government services, harassment and retaliation, and accessing food, housing, and healthcare. In line with past research at the national level, farmworkers in Washington reported frequently working in heat and smoke and with pesticides. A significant share of respondents also stated challenges with obtain consistent housing and food, and 40% stated that they did not have insurance. Other key takeaways from responses include:

• More than half of respondents said employers do not consistently adjust work to excessive heat or smoke.
• English speakers were more likely to receive safety-related training and equipment.
• Nearly half of farmworkers reported using government services, and 69% of those that did sought help from a community organization or figure.
• 43% of H-2A workers report struggling to find housing and food “every week” despite being guaranteed both by their visa status.
• Having health insurance is associated with greater use of preventative healthcare and less use of emergency services.

State and federal agencies coordinate enforcing policies and delivering programs to farmworkers. Federal agency personnel relayed that Washington is one of the most effective states in providing services and protections to farmworkers. Washington State agency personnel reported good working relationships with staff at other agencies but also communicated that a lack of formal processes for collaboration, such as shared data bases to coordinate responses to complaints and incidents, hampers coordination.

The research literature on policies and programs to help meet farmworker needs emphasizes the importance of state- and community-led initiatives to support the specific regional needs of farmworkers.

Rebecca Goodvin, Julia Cramer - June 2025

The 2023 Legislature directed WSIPP to study breast cancer-related programming for American Indian and Alaska Native (AIAN) women in Washington’s peer states. The legislature specified breast cancer prevention and education programs and post-diagnosis resource and support programs led by states, tribes, or collaborations between states and tribes. In addition, the legislature directed WSIPP to review evidence for identified programs.

We conducted outreach to program representatives across nine peer states. Limited access to screening and treatment, as well as mistrust and cultural barriers, may discourage AIAN women from seeking preventive care and follow-up treatment. All states and some tribes or indigenous-led organizations receive federal grants for breast cancer outreach, education, and screening for low-income, uninsured, or underinsured women. State programs vary in how grants are used to reach AIAN communities. We identified few state- or tribal-led organizations with post-diagnosis supports or resources for AIAN women. Some organizations offer treatment navigation, access to traditional native medicine, or programs to honor breast cancer survivors. The evaluation literature largely supports the effectiveness of identified prevention and post-diagnosis activities; however, there is limited population-specific research on the health outcomes of these interventions with AIAN women.

Travis Taniguchi, Alexandra Johnson, Leah Hardenbergh - June 2025

Law Enforcement Assisted Diversion (LEAD) was originally developed in Seattle to divert people away from the criminal legal system before they were booked into jail. In 2019, state funding was provided to expand LEAD into four pilot communities. In 2021, additional funding was provided through the Recovery Navigator Program (RNP) to expand pre-booking diversion statewide. Both LEAD and RNP seek to connect people with housing and mental and substance use disorder treatment to address underlying issues that drive frequent interactions with law enforcement. This report describes the state of LEAD and RNP implementation, barriers to achieving higher fidelity to core principles of pre-arrest diversion, the use of technical support from the LEAD National Support Bureau (LSB), and a benefit-cost analysis.

To address these topics, we conducted 60 interviews with 91 people involved in the diversion process, reviewed administrative data collected by the LSB, and conducted a systematic literature review, meta-analysis, and benefit-cost analysis. Results suggested that LEAD and RNP programs face considerable challenges in implementing pre-booking diversion. Major barriers include limited buy-in from criminal legal system professionals, insufficient capacity and funding, and lack of necessary resources such as housing and substance use disorder treatment. Clarifying the relationship between LEAD core principles and RNP uniform standards, facilitating technical assistance, and implementing improved data-sharing technologies would help to improve program fidelity and clarify uncertainty among diversion system actors. The benefit-cost analysis suggested that for every $1 invested in these programs, $7.39 in benefits was returned.

Rebecca Goodvin, Paige Wanner, Helen Ippolito, Alex Patel, Heather Grob - December 2024

The 2023 Legislature directed WSIPP to update the Adult Corrections Inventory, focusing on programs for incarcerated individuals in prison facilities. For this inventory, we reviewed and synthesized the research evidence for a variety of programs aimed at reducing recidivism and improving other outcomes for this population. This update prioritizes adding programs offered by Washington’s Department of Corrections (DOC). This is the second update to the Adult Corrections Inventory first published in 2013.

The accompanying report describes our standard process for evaluating and classifying research evidence and the reasons that program classifications may change in the current iteration of the inventory. Programs that are new to the inventory, updated with current evidence, or change classification due to benefit-cost model updates are identified in the report. Additionally, this report summarizes information about likely program effects on recidivism for all DOC facility programs included in the inventory.

Find previous versions of the inventory with the following links: 2013 Inventory; 2018 Inventory.